Journal of Pediatric Psychology, Vol. 27, No. 7, 2002, pp. 619-629
© 2002 Society of Pediatric Psychology
Resilience Among African American Adolescent Mothers: Predictors of Positive Parenting in Early Infancy
1 University of Maryland Baltimore County, 2 University of Maryland School of Medicine
All correspondence should be sent to Maureen Black, Department of Pediatrics, University of Maryland School of Medicine, 655 W. Lombard Street, Suite 311, Baltimore, Maryland 21201. E-mail: mblack{at}umaryland.edu.
 |
Abstract |
|---|
 Top Abstract IntroductionMethodResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
Objective: To use Nath et al.'s (1991
) conceptual model of
adolescent parenting to examine the relationship between resiliency factors
measured shortly after delivery and maternal parenting behavior at 6
months. Method: We recruited 181 first-time, adolescent African American mothers at delivery. Data on resiliency factors (maturity, self-esteem, and mother-grandmother relationships) were collected when infants were 1-4 weeks of age. Data on parental nurturance and parenting satisfaction were examined through observations and self-report at 6 months.
Results: Multiple regression analyses were used to examine the longitudinal impact of resiliency factors on parental nurturance and parenting satisfaction. Maternal maturity, positive self-esteem, and positive adolescent mother-grandmother relationships (characterized by autonomy and mutuality) were associated with better parenting outcomes. Maternal parenting satisfaction was lowest when infants were temperamentally difficult and mothers and grandmothers had a confrontational relationship.
Conclusions: Longitudinal associations between mother-grandmother relationships at delivery and parental behavior and satisfaction 6 months later may suggest an intergenerational transmission of parenting style. Recommendations are provided for intervention programs to enhance mother-grandmother relationships in contexts where adolescents are required to live with a guardian to receive government assistance.
Key words: resilience; adolescent mothers; African American; parenting; mother-grandmother relationship; low-income.
|
Introduction |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionMethodResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
The rate of births to adolescent parents has declined steadily since 1991, yet the United States continues to have the highest adolescent birth rate in the industrialized world (Ventura, Matthews, & Curtin, 1999
). In 1998, approximately 500,000
adolescents gave birth, representing 12.5% of the infants born in the United
States (Guyer et al., 1998).
Although the majority of adolescent births occur among white adolescents,
African American adolescents are 2.5 times more likely to give birth than
non-Hispanic white adolescents (Ventura et
al., 1999).
Adolescent parenthood presents multiple challenges to mothers and their
children. Young mothers are often unprepared for the tasks of parenting
(Leadbeater, Bishop, & Raver,
1996; McHenry, Browne, Kotch,
& Symons, 1990; Wasserman,
Rauh, Brunelli, Garcia-Castro, & Necos, 1990), and their
adaptation to the new parental role is complicated by their struggles to
negotiate the developmental tasks of adolescence
(Hurlbut & McDonald,
1997). Consequently, children of adolescent parents have an
increased risk of experiencing behavioral and developmental problems
(Coley & Chase-Lansdale,
1998; Furstenburg, Brooks-Gunn, & Morgan, 1987;
Hubbs-Tait, Osofsky, Hann, & Culp,
1994; Lyons-Ruth & Block,
1996; Miller & Moore,
1990).
Comparisons of adult and adolescent mothers have shown that the home
environments of adolescent mothers tend to be less stimulating than those of
adult mothers (Luster & Dubow,
1990; Moore, Morrison, &
Greene, 1997), and the quality of interactions between mothers and
children differ, with adolescent mothers showing less positive parenting
behavior (Barratt & Roach,
1995; Culp, Appelbaum,
Osofsky, & Levy, 1988). Adolescent parenthood is also
associated with higher rates of child abuse and neglect than adult parenthood
(Haskett, Johnson, & Miller,
1994). However, there is often more variability among adolescent
mothers than between adolescent and adult mothers, emphasizing the need to
identify resiliency factors that contribute to positive parenting outcomes
within low-income, adolescent African American mothers.
Social support, mother-grandmother relationships, maternal characteristics,
and infant temperament may be particularly important factors influencing
parenting for adolescents struggling with the emerging demands of parenthood
and adolescence (Coley &
Chase-Lansdale, 1998; Furstenburg et al., 1987;
Hubbs-Tait et al., 1994;
Lyons-Ruth & Block, 1996;
Miller & Moore, 1990).
Although Belsky (1984)
identified social support as an important determinant of parenting, his model
may have limited applicability to adolescent mothers since it focuses on the
marital relationship. Adolescent mothers, particularly those from African
American families, often remain single, live in their family of origin, and
share caregiving with their mothers (baby's grandmother)
(Pearson, Hunter, Ensminger, & Kellam,
1990; Taylor, Chatters, &
Jackson, 1993). Nath, Borkowski, Whitman, and Schellenbach
(1991;
Schellenbach, Whitman, & Borkowski,
1992) have adapted Belsky's model to more appropriately explain
parenting processes in the adolescent social environment by placing a strong
emphasis on social support systems that incorporate the family of origin and
peer groups and by giving social support systems a more central role in their
model than does Belsky (1984).
Both models also incorporate maternal and child characteristics, as well as
mother-infant interactions, as determinants of parenting. Mother-infant
interactions are characterized by transactional processes in which mothers may
modify their behaviors in response to infant characteristics (e.g., infant
temperament) (Sameroff, 1975;
Sameroff & Chandler,
1975).
The importance of family support for adolescent mothers has captured the
attention of policy makers, as illustrated in the Personal Responsibility and
Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996, which requires adolescent mothers
to live with a guardian to receive financial assistance
(U.S. House of Representatives,
1996). Indeed, grandmothers are often viewed as providing support,
nurturance, and sociological, financial, and legal stability
(Tolson & Wilson, 1990).
Despite the enthusiasm of policy makers regarding three-generation households,
the impact of multi-generational families on adolescent parents and their
children varies (Black & Nitz,
1996; Chase-Lansdale,
Brooks-Gunn, & Zamsky, 1994).
This investigation was undertaken to examine resiliency factors related to positive parenting among low-income, urban, adolescent African American mothers living in three-generational households. Our primary goal was to better understand how the adolescent's relationship with her mother affects the adolescent's parenting skills and abilities, above and beyond the impact of maternal and child characteristics. The longitudinal design of this study allowed an investigation of how factors measured at the time of the child's birth affected adolescent parenting 6 months after the child's birth.
In keeping with the model guiding this investigation
(Nath et al., 1991), maternal
characteristics were initially examined as predictors of positive parenting.
Adolescent mothers' maturity levels and self-esteem were examined as important
personal characteristics affecting parenting. Age and grade level served as
proxies for maturity level. In a longitudinal investigation of predictors of
resiliency in adolescent mothers, grade level was the strongest predictor of
resiliency 5 years after the child's birth
(Weed, Keogh, & Borkowski,
2000). Specifically, adolescents who had completed more schooling
by the time they had their first child were more likely to be in school or to
have graduated from high school and to have better psychosocial outcomes,
including less depression, less anxiety, and higher self-esteem. In an
empirical investigation of the relationship between self-esteem and parenting
for adolescent mothers, Hurlbut and McDonald
(1997) found that positive
self-esteem was related to positive and appropriate parenting attitudes and
beliefs for first-time adolescent mothers. We hypothesized that mothers who
were older and had completed more schooling at the time of the child's birth
would have more positive parenting behaviors than younger mothers and mothers
with less schooling. We also hypothesized that mothers with higher self-esteem
would have more positive parenting behaviors than mothers with lower
self-esteem. Thus, mothers who were more mature and had greater psychosocial
resources were expected to have better parenting outcomes.
We next examined the impact of infant characteristics on parenting outcomes
since this is an important determinant of parenting
(Belsky, 1984;
Nath et al., 1991).
Interaction among parents and children is a reciprocal process
(Sameroff, 1975), such that
children's behavior can influence the quantity and quality of caregiving they
receive. Thus, conceptualizations of parenting should take into account
children's contributions. Infant temperament is the child characteristic that
has received the most attention as a determinant of parental functioning.
Children who are temperamentally fussy and difficult can undermine parenting
abilities (Belsky, 1984). We
hypothesized that mothers who regarded their infants as temperamentally easy
would have more positive parenting behavior.
We then examined the impact of the adolescent's relationship with her mother on the adolescent's parenting skill and ability, above and beyond the effects of maternal maturity and self-esteem and infant temperament. Because the adolescent mothers in this study were new mothers who were living with the baby's grandmother during the child's infancy, we expected a positive relation between the adolescent-grandmother relationship and adolescent parenting behavior. Specifically, we hypothesized that adolescent mothers who had better relationships with their own mothers shortly after delivery would have more positive parenting behaviors after 6 months than adolescent mothers with poorer relationships with their mothers.
Finally, infant temperament was examined as a moderator of the relation
between the adolescent mother-grandmother relationship and adolescent
parenting. This hypothesis is an extension of Crockenberg's
(1981) finding that the
relationship between social support and infants' attachment to their mothers
varied according to the infants' temperament. Social support had a stronger
effect on security of attachment in the context of irritable babies, such that
when infants were temperamentally difficult, mothers who felt unsupported were
more likely to have insecurely attached infants than mothers who felt
supported. Similar moderating effects were expected in this study in the
prediction of adolescent parenting.
|
Method |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionMethodResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
Participants
The participants included 181 adolescent mothers enrolled in a longitudinal randomized controlled trial of home intervention designed to promote parenting and adolescent development among low-income families. Because national policies require that eligibility for public services be restricted to adolescent mothers who are in the guardianship of an adult (U.S. House of Representatives, 1996
), many adolescent mothers live with their mothers. Thus, we
limited our sample to adolescent mothers who were living with their mother
(grandmother of the baby). Eligibility for mothers included age less than 18
years at delivery, first-time delivery, African American ethnicity, low income
(defined as eligible for WIC: family income under 185% of poverty level), and
no chronic illnesses that would interfere with parenting or adolescent
development. Eligibility for infants included full-term (
37 weeks),
birthweight appropriate for gestational age, and no congenital problems or
chronic illnesses. None of the infants experienced complications following
delivery that required neonatal intensive care services.
Procedures
Mothers were recruited from three urban hospitals in Baltimore. They were
approached shortly after delivery and given a brochure explaining the
longitudinal study, including the evaluation schedule and the randomization
procedure used to determine intervention/control group assignment. Those who
expressed interest in enrolling in the study were scheduled to receive a
baseline home evaluation within three weeks. Over 83% of the eligible mothers
agreed to participate and completed the baseline evaluation. The adolescent
mothers and the baby's grandmother were each paid $25 at the baseline and
6-month evaluations. There were no differences in maternal age or education
between those who completed the baseline evaluation and those who did not.
At the baseline evaluation, all mothers and grandmothers completed consent forms approved by the institutional review boards of the participating institutions. In keeping with the parenting theory guiding the research, the baseline evaluation included standardized questionnaires on family demographics, personal health and mental health, mother-grandmother relationships, access to services, and early adjustment to parenting. Mothers completed the questionnaires on a laptop computer in which questions were presented aurally through headphones and visually on the screen, and responses were recorded with a mouse. Mothers and grandmothers were videotaped as they completed two tasks together. In the first task, they sorted cards with descriptions of caregiving activities into piles depending on who assumed responsibility for them. In the second task, they discussed a recent conflict and how they reached resolution. The camera was positioned so both participants were in view, but an operator was not present.
At the conclusion of the baseline evaluation, mothers were randomized into either an intervention group or a control group. For families in the intervention group, home visits were scheduled every other week after the baseline assessment, beginning when the infants were 4 to 6 weeks old. The visits continued until the infants were 12 months old.
When the infants were 6 months old, the evaluation team returned to the homes to repeat many of the measures administered during the baseline interview. In addition, a videotape was made of the mother playing with the infant. The camera was positioned so the mother and infant were visible, but the operator did not remain in the room. The evaluation team was not aware of the participants' group assignments.
Complete data were available from 148 mothers (82% of the sample). The remaining mothers were not compliant with the 6-month follow-up evaluation. There were no differences in maternal age, maternal education, infant birthweight, infant gender, or intervention status between families who were included in this phase of the study and families who were not.
Measures
Outcome Variables. Adolescent parenting was measured when the
infants were 6 months old by a self-report measure of parenting satisfaction
and by an observational scale of parent-child interaction during play to
reflect parental nurturance. The two variables were not significantly
correlated (r = .093, p = .26), which justified using them
as separate outcomes rather than as a composite variable.
The Parenting Sense of Competence Scale
(Gibaud-Wallston & Wandersman,
1978; Johnston & Mash,
1989) was used to assess parenting. This 17-item scale consists of
two empirically derived subscales, Parenting Satisfaction (nine items) and
Parenting Efficacy (eight items). The subscales were not significantly
correlated (r = .13, p = .13) for our sample, which
justified using them as independent subscales rather than as a full scale.
Each item is answered on a 6-point scale ranging from strongly disagree (6) to
strongly agree (1). Items were reverse scored so that higher scores indicated
greater parenting satisfaction and efficacy. The subscale of parenting
satisfaction was used in our study and was created by summing and averaging
nine items that reflected the degree to which the parent felt comfortable,
relaxed, and highly motivated in the parenting role. The internal consistency
of the parenting satisfaction scale for our sample was alpha = .75.
Correlations among and within scales for our sample were similar to those
reported by Johnston and Mash
(1989).
A modified version of the Parent Child Early Relational Assessment
(Black, Hutcheson, Dubowitz, Starr, &
Berenson-Howard, 1996; Clark,
1985) was used to measure parental nurturance based on videotaped
observations of mothers playing with their infants. Black et al.
(1996) assessed the
psychometric properties of this scale for use with low-income African American
samples, and this modified version was used in this study. Parental nurturance
was organized on a theoretical basis and included four items (social
initiative, involvement with child, cheerful mood, child-oriented language)
and ranged from minimal (1) to optimal (5) nurturance. The videotapes were
scored by two raters who were unaware of the family's history. Raters were
trained until they reached > 90% agreement. Interrater reliability was
reviewed through weekly checks. The internal consistency for parental
nurturance was alpha = .80.
Predictor Variables. The predictor variables included maternal characteristics, infant temperament, and the supportive quality of the mother-grandmother relationship. All of the variables were measured at baseline, except infant temperament, which was measured when the infants were 6 months old. We chose to measure infant temperament at 6 months because at baseline the infants' temperamental characteristics may not have stabilized.
Maternal characteristics included demographic characteristics, such as age and grade level, as well as self-esteem. Age and grade level served as proxies for maturity.
Maternal self-esteem was measured by the Rosenberg Self Esteem Scale
(Rosenberg, 1965). It is a
10-item questionnaire that uses a Likert scale, ranging from 1 (strongly
agree) to 4 (strongly disagree); high scores represent higher self-esteem.
This scale was developed for use with adolescents. Validity studies conducted
with independent groups of adolescents indicated high internal consistency
(
s = .77 and .88) and test-retest reliability over 1- and 2-week
intervals (r = .82 and .85, respectively)
(Blascovich & Tomaka,
1991). Additionally, the scale showed good convergent validity
with other measures of self-esteem, for example, with self-confidence
(r = .65), general self-regard (r = .78), and the Lerner
Self-Esteem Scale (r = .72)
(Blascovich & Tomaka,
1991). The internal consistency of the scale for our sample
( = .83) was comparable to those of the validity studies.
Infant characteristics were represented by infant temperament, measured by
the Fussy-Difficult factor of the Infant Characteristics Questionnaire (ICQ),
standardized for 6-month-old infants
(Bates, Freeland, & Lounsbury,
1979). This factor is the most commonly used factor of the ICQ due
to its strong psychometric properties. Validity studies indicated good
internal consistency ( = .79) and test-retest reliability over 2- to
10-day intervals (r = .70) (Bates
et al., 1979). This 6-item scale uses a 7-point Likert scale in
which high scores represent more temperamental difficulties. The mean,
standard deviation, and internal consistency of the scale ( = .75) for
our sample were similar to values for the original sample of Bates et al.
(1979).
The supportive quality of the mother-grandmother relationship was measured
by both observational and self-report scales. The Scale of Inter-generational
Relationship Quality (SIRQ) is a global observational coding system developed
to assess the quality of the mother-grandmother relationship based on the
videotaped interaction of the two (for details, see Wakschlag, Chase-Lansdale,
& Brooks-Gunn, 1991,
1996). Each adolescent and
grandmother were asked to independently choose topics on which they disagreed
and to spend 10-15 minutes discussing and resolving them. The SIRQ was
developed to provide a valid and reliable way of capturing meaningful
dimensions of interaction among low-income, ethnic minority mothers and
grandmothers. It was standardized among African American families in
Baltimore. A member of Wakschlag's team trained the coders and established
reliability with them for this study. Reliability was maintained through
weekly reliability checks. Four factors were extracted including emotional
closeness (connectedness), positive affect (upbeat tone), grandmother
directness (demandingness and clarity), and individuation (balance of autonomy
and mutuality). The internal consistencies of the factors among our sample
were .78, .68, .85, and .74, respectively. The correlation among factors
ranged from .20 (p < .05) to .70 (p < .01). The
pattern of relations among factors was similar to those reported by Wakschlag
et al. (1996).
The Network of Relationship Inventory (NRI;
Furman & Buhrmester, 1985)
is a self-report measure of the adolescent mothers' perceptions of supportive
and negative interactions with their mothers. The adapted version of the NRI
consists of 24 items measured on a 5-point Likert scale, with responses
ranging from 1 (little or none) to 5 (the most). The measure consists of eight
three-item scales that load on two factors: (1) support (affection,
admiration, reliable alliance, intimacy, companionship, and instrumental help)
and (2) negative interactions (conflict and antagonism). Cronbach's alphas of
the factors on our sample were .82 and .88, respectively. The correlation
between factors was r = -.24 (p < .01).
Data Analysis
The hypotheses were evaluated by multiple regression analyses using
ordinary least squares. There were two outcome variables representing
adolescent parenting when the infants were six months old: parent satisfaction
and parental nurturance. For the first hypothesis, we examined the effects of
maternal characteristics (maturity and self-esteem) on parenting. For the
second hypothesis, we examined the effect of infant characteristics (infant
temperament) on parenting. For the third hypothesis, we examined whether the
mother-grandmother relationship, measured both by self-report and videotaped
interaction, improved the prediction. For the final hypothesis, we examined
whether the link between the mother-grandmother relationship and adolescent
parenting was moderated by infant temperament.
For the regression analysis involving each dependent variable, we entered
intervention status as a covariate on step 1. We controlled for intervention
status by defining a dummy variable for all regression analyses (0 = control
and 1 = intervention). Maternal maturity was entered on step 2. Since maternal
age and grade level were highly correlated (r = .63, p <
.001), we entered grade level as a proxy for maturity. Maternal self-esteem
was entered on step 3. Infant temperament was entered on step 4. The quality
of the adolescent mother-grandmother relationship, measured by adolescent
report (two factors from NRI) and observations of mother-grandmother
interaction (four factors from SIRQ), was entered on step 5 in a stepwise
fashion. In the final step, the six interaction terms (between infant
temperament and the six measures of adolescent mother-grandmother
relationship) were forwarded after ensuring a saturated model. Significant
interaction terms were plotted using procedures recommended by Cohen and Cohen
(1983) to compare differences
in the relation between infant temperament and adolescent mother-grandmother
relationship in the prediction of parenting.
|
Results |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionMethodResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
Sample characteristics are displayed in Table I. The age of the adolescent mothers ranged from 13.5 to 17.9 years, with a mean of 16.3 years (SD = 1.0). None of the mothers was married, 97% received public assistance, and their grade levels ranged from 7th to 12th grade, with a mean of 10.2 (SD = 1.1).
|
Parenting Outcomes
For the first hypothesis, we examined whether adolescent maturity and
self-esteem were related to adolescent parenting. Grade level was related to
both parenting satisfaction and parental nurturance. Mothers who had completed
more schooling were more likely to report higher levels of parenting
satisfaction and were more nurturant caregivers in play interactions with
their children (see Tables II
and III). Self-esteem was
related only to parenting satisfaction, such that mothers with higher levels
of self-esteem at baseline felt more satisfied as parents at 6 months.
|
|
For the second hypothesis, we examined whether infant characteristics were related to parenting. Specifically, we examined whether mothers who reported that their infants were temperamentally easy to care for had better parenting skills. There were no direct associations between infant temperament and parenting.
For the third hypothesis, we examined how the mother-grandmother relationship shortly after delivery was related to adolescent parenting at 6 months, over and above the effects of maternal maturity, maternal self-esteem, and infant temperament. Two aspects of the mother-grandmother relationship measured with the SIRQ—namely, individuation and positive affect—were related to parental nurturance. Mothers who displayed a more balanced, autonomous relationship and were positive and animated in interactions with their mothers during the baseline videotaped observation were more nurturant with their infants during a play observation at six months (see Table III). Neither factor from the NRI predicted parental nurturance. None of the variables from the SIRQ or NRI measuring the adolescent mother-grandmother relationship was related to parenting satisfaction at 6 months.
In the final hypothesis, we examined whether the association between the mother-grandmother relationship and adolescent parenting was moderated by infant temperament. When parenting satisfaction was examined as an index of adolescent parenting, there was a significant interaction between infant temperament and the grandmother directiveness subscale of the SIRQ. The relation between infant temperament and parenting satisfaction varied by the quality of grandmother directiveness. Among adolescent mothers who had a confrontational relationship with their own mothers, parenting satisfaction was closely tied to infant temperament, such that mothers of infants with difficult temperaments reported low levels of satisfaction. Among adolescent mothers who had nonconfrontational relationships with their own mothers, the association between infant temperament and parenting satisfaction was less strong (see Figure 1). None of the other interactions was significant.
|
|
Discussion |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionMethodResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
Findings demonstrated that adolescent mothers' personal characteristics and positive, supportive relationships with their mothers were resiliency factors that enabled adolescents to be nurturant and satisfied mothers to their own children, supporting Nath et al.'s (1991
) model of parenting.
First, adolescent mothers who were more mature and had positive self-esteem
reported being more satisfied in the parenting role. More mature mothers also
demonstrated greater behavioral competence in play interactions with their
infants since they were more nurturant than were less mature mothers.
Consistent with Hurlbut and McDonald's
(1997) findings, adolescent
mothers who were more mature were better prepared for the transition to
parenting compared with less mature mothers. Second, the quality of the adolescent mother-grandmother relationship measured shortly after the child's birth predicted positive parenting over and above maternal maturity and self-esteem. Adolescents who had relationships with their mothers characterized by autonomy, mutuality, and the ability to deal with conflict nondefensively (individuation), and whose interactions with their mothers were positive and animated (positive affect) soon after the baby was born, exhibited more nurturant behavior with their own children 6 months after the child's birth. This longitudinal finding may suggest an inter-generational transmission of parenting. However, this study focused on the supportive quality of the teenage mother-grandmother relationship, rather than on grandmothers' parenting styles. Additional studies would need to examine the grandmother's parenting style with her children to see if she and her daughter use similar styles of parenting.
Findings were similar to those of Wakschlag et al.
(1996), who found that high
adolescent individuation was associated with more competent parenting and less
problem parenting in a structured parenttoddler play interaction. Of the four
SIRQ factors, Wakschlag et al. found that individuation was the only
independent predictor of parenting behavior in their cross-sectional study. We
confirmed and extended their study by examining relations longitudinally and
found that both individuation and positive affect measured shortly after birth
predicted nurturant parenting behavior 6 months later.
Neither of the subscales of relationship quality measured by adolescent report shortly after the child's birth predicted parenting at 6 months. The lack of findings between adolescent report of relationship quality and parenting outcomes may be because the adolescent's parenting role and the grandmother's role are still evolving shortly after the child's birth so that parenting satisfaction at 6 months is not affected by their early relationship. If this is the case, it provides an ideal opportunity for intervening in the lives of adolescents and grandmothers while roles are evolving to help them develop positive, supportive relationships that can help foster positive parenting.
Support from the family of origin and from peers is particularly important
in the context of adolescent parenting, since these support figures tend to be
more consistently available than the baby's father. Not only are marital rates
low among adolescent parents but marriages among adolescents are less stable
than adult marriages. African American adolescents report that support from
their mother is the most important source of support during their transition
to parenthood (Nitz, Ketterlinus, &
Brandt, 1995). As evidenced by this study, positive, supportive,
mutual relationships with their mothers that emphasized adolescent autonomy,
mutuality, and positive affect helped these adolescents to be nurturing
parents with their own infants. This was consistent with Nath et al.'s
(1991) conceptual model of
adolescent parenting, in which social support systems play a central role in
predicting parenting outcomes among adolescent parents.
Although infant temperament was expected to predict parenting when measured
concurrently at 6 months, no such relations were found. Thus, adolescent
mothers do not appear to modify their parenting based on their child's
temperamental characteristics. It may be that adolescent parents possess
specific beliefs and strategies for parenting their infants and do not deviate
from their approaches, regardless of how their infants behave. An alternate
explanation for lack of relations between infant temperament and parenting may
be that adolescent mothers are poor reporters of their child's temperament.
This explanation seems unlikely, however, since the internal consistency and
variability in temperament ratings made by the adolescents were consistent
with those reported in the ICQ manual
(Bates et al., 1979). Another
explanation may be that adolescent mothers attend to infant temperament only
in certain contexts. The significant interaction between infant temperament
and grandmother directiveness in predicting parenting satisfaction lends
support to this view. Infant temperament was an important predictor of
adolescent parenting satisfaction in the context of a confrontational
mother-grandmother relationship. Adolescent mothers who have a confrontational
relationship with their mothers may experience limited support in their
parenting role and therefore may be particularly dependent on their infants'
temperaments as a marker of their parenting satisfaction. Thus, their
satisfaction may be threatened when they see their infant as temperamentally
difficult. By contrast, adolescent mothers who have a less confrontational
relationship may experience more support from their mothers in their parenting
role; therefore, their parenting satisfaction may be less dependent on their
infants' temperaments. Similarly, Crockenberg
(1981) found that mothers with
difficult infants and low support were more likely to have insecurely attached
infants than mothers with difficult infants who had high support.
Another alternate explanation is that adolescents who had relationships
with the baby's grandmother that were characterized by grandmother
demandingness and high confrontation may be more depressed than mothers with
more positive relationships with the baby's grandmother. If this is the case,
these mothers may view their infants as more difficult and report less
parenting satisfaction. In fact, several studies have found that mothers who
are depressed tend to view their children as more temperamentally difficult
than do nondepressed mothers (Beck,
1996; Cutrona & Troutman,
1986; Ventura & Stevenson,
1986; Whiffen & Gotlib,
1989).
Resiliency Among African American Adolescent Mothers
Adolescent parents represent a group at risk for problems in parenting
because of the multiple challenges and demands they face in negotiating both
adolescent and parental roles simultaneously. Resiliency factors offer
protection from negative outcomes despite the existence of risk factors. In
early resiliency research, the search was for general, broadly applicable
factors that could protect individuals in all contexts. More recently,
however, resiliency factors have been conceptualized as more context
dependent, emphasizing the need to identify specific, rather than global,
resiliency factors that protect individuals faced with specific risks in
specific life contexts (Grossman et al., 1992). In the context of
three-generation, adolescent African American parent families, maternal
maturity, maternal self-esteem, and mother-grandmother relationships
characterized by autonomy, mutuality, and positive affect served as important
resiliency factors protecting adolescents from poor and inadequate parenting
outcomes during the infancy period. The ability to be part of a positive
reciprocal relationship with their mothers enabled the adolescents to develop
nurturing relationships with their own infants.
Recommendations
The Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996
(U.S. House of Representatives,
1996) requires that adolescent mothers live with a guardian to
receive financial assistance. As seen in this study, adolescents who had
positive, mutual relationships with their mothers exhibited better
relationships with their own children. Since the majority of African American
adolescent mothers live with their own mothers after the child's birth,
interventions designed to promote positive parenting should include the goal
of enhancing adolescent mother-grandmother relationships. One means of
enhancing this relationship is to help adolescents and their mothers develop
effective strategies for communicating openly and effectively, in a
nonconfrontational manner, to reduce conflict that may develop when both share
responsibility for child rearing. For example, we found that an intervention
that included adolescent mother-grandmother negotiating skills, along with
strategies to interpret infants' cues, was effective in promoting adherence to
the feeding guidelines recommended by the American Academy of Pediatrics
(delaying the onset of complementary feeding until infants are 4-6 months old)
(Black, Siegel, Abel, & Bentley,
2001). Additionally, interventions should provide adolescents with
opportunities to develop positive self-esteem since positive self-esteem was
associated with better parenting outcomes in this study.
As with most investigations that use self-report, our data on infant temperament and parenting satisfaction may reflect inaccuracies based on the mothers' ability and willingness to report. We attempted to minimize this problem by including observations of mother-grandmother relationships and maternal parenting style. Much more work is needed to understand the parenting behavior of adolescent mothers, so we can develop intervention programs to promote their development and to prevent behavioral and developmental problems among their children.
|
Acknowledgments |
|---|
This research was supported by grant MCJ-240301 from the Maternal and Child Health Research Program, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
Received February 1, 2001; revision received May 5, 2001; accepted August 3, 2001
|
References |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionMethodResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
Barratt, M. S., & Roach, M. A. (1995). Early interactive processes: Parenting by adolescent and adult single mothers. Infant Behavior and Development, 18, 97-109.
Bates, J. E., Freeland, C. B., & Lounsbury, M. L. (1979). Measurement of infant difficultness. Child Development, 50, 794-803.[Web of Science][Medline]
Beck, C. T. (1996). A meta-analysis of the relationship between postpartum depression and infant temperament. Nursing Research, 45(4), 225-230.[Web of Science][Medline]
Belsky, J. (1984). The determinants of parenting: A process model. Child Development, 55, 83-96.[Web of Science][Medline]
Black, M. M., Hutcheson, J. J., Dubowitz, H., Starr, R. H., Jr., & Berenson-Howard, J. (1996). The roots of competence: Mother-child interaction among low-income, urban, African American families. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 17, 367-391.
Black, M. M., & Nitz, K. (1996). Grandmother co-residence, parenting, and child development among low income, urban teen mothers. Journal of Adolescent Health, 18, 218-226.[Web of Science][Medline]
Black, M. M., Siegel, E., Abel, Y., & Bentley, M. E. (2001). Home and videotape intervention delays premature introduction of complementary feeding among adolescent mothers. Pediatrics, 107(5), e67. Accessed on May 1, 2001, at www.pediatrics.org/cgi/content/full/107/5/e67.
Blascovich, J., & Tomaka, J. (1991). Measures of self-esteem. In J. P. Robinson, P. R. Shaver, & L. S. Wrightsman (Eds.), Measures of personality and social psychological attitudes, Volume I. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Chase-Lansdale, P. L., Brooks-Gunn, J., & Zamsky, E. S. (1994). Young African-American multigenerational families in poverty: Quality of mothering and grand-mothering. Child Development, 65, 373-393.[Web of Science][Medline]
Clark, R. (1985). The parent-child early relational assessment. Unpublished document.
Cohen, J., & Cohen, P. (1983). Applied multiple regression correlation analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Coley, R. L., & Chase-Lansdale, P. L. (1998). Adolescent pregnancy and parenthood: Recent evidence and future directions. American Psychologist, 53, 152-166.[Medline]
Crockenberg, S. B. (1981). Infant irritability, mother responsiveness, and social support influences on the security of infant-mother attachment. Child Development, 52, 857-865.[Web of Science][Medline]
Culp, R. E., Appelbaum, M. L., Osofsky, D. D., & Levy, J. A. (1988). Adolescent and older mothers: Comparison between prenatal maternal variables and newborn interaction measures. Infant Behavior and Development, 11, 353-362.
Cutrona, C. E., & Troutman, B. R. (1986). Social support, infant temperament, and parenting self-efficacy: A mediational model of postpartum depression. Child Development, 57(6), 1507-1518.[Web of Science][Medline]
Furman, W., & Buhrmester, D. (1985). Children's perceptions of the personal relationships in their social networks. Developmental Psychology, 21, 1016-1024.[Web of Science]
Furstenberg, F. F., Brooks-Gunn, J., & Morgan, S. P. (1987). Adolescent mothers in later life. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Gibaud-Wallston, J., & Wandersman, L. P. (1978, August). Development and utility of the Parenting Sense of Competence Scale. Paper presented at the meeting of the American Psychological Association, Toronto, ON.
Grossman, F. K., Beinashowitz, J., Anderson, L., Sakural, M., Finnin, L., & Flaherty, M. (2000). Risk and resilience in young adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 21, 529-550.
Guyer, B., Hoyert, D. L., Martin, J. A., Ventura, S. J., MacDorman,
M. F., & Strobino, D. M. (1998). Annual summary of vital
statistics. Pediatrics, 104,
1229-1246.
Haskett, M. E., Johnson, C. A., & Miller, J. W. (1994). Individual differences in risk of child abuse by adolescent mothers: Assessment in the perinatal period. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 35, 461-476.
Hubbs-Tait, L., Osofsky, J. D., Hann, D. M., & Culp, A. M. (1994). Predicting behavior problems and social competence in children of adolescent mothers. Family Relations, 43, 439-446.
Hurlbut, N. L., & McDonald, A. (1997). Adolescent mothers' self-esteem and role identity and their relationship to parenting skills knowledge. Adolescence, 32, 639-654.[Web of Science][Medline]
Johnston, C., & Mash, E. J. (1989). A measure of parenting satisfaction and efficacy. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 18(2), 167-175.[Web of Science]
Leadbeater, B. J., Bishop, S. J., & Raver, C. C. (1996). Quality of mother-toddler interactions, maternal depressive symptoms, and behavior problems in preschoolers of adolescent mothers. Developmental Psychology, 32, 280-288.[Web of Science]
Luster, T., & Dubow, E. (1990). Predictors of the quality of the home environment that adolescent mothers provide for their school-aged children. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 19, 475-494.
Lyons-Ruth, K., & Block, D. (1996). The disturbed caregiving systems: Relations among childhood trauma, maternal caregiving, and infant affect and attachment. Infant Mental Health Journal, 17, 257-275.
McHenry, P. C., Browne, D. H., Kotch, J. B., & Symons, M. J. (1990). Mediators of depression among low-income, adolescent mothers of infants: A longitudinal perspective. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 19, 327-347.
Miller, B. C., & Moore, K. A. (1990). Adolescent sexual behavior, pregnancy and parenting: Research through the 1980's. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 52, 1025-1044.
Moore, K. A., Morrison, D. R., & Greene, A. D. (1997). Effects of the children born to adolescent mothers. In R. A. Maynard (Ed.), Kids having kids: Economic costs and social consequences of teen pregnancy (pp. 145-180). Washington, DC: Urban Institute Press.
Nath, P.S., Borkowski, J. G., Whitman, T. L., & Schellenbach, C. J. (1991). Understanding adolescent parenting: The dimensions and functions of social support. Family Relations, 40, 411-420.
Nitz, K., Ketterlinus, R. D., & Brandt, L. J. (1995). The role of stress, social support, and family environment in adolescent mothers' parenting. Journal of Adolescent Research, 10, 358-382.[Abstract]
Pearson, J. L., Hunter, A. G., Ensminger, M., & Kellam, S. G. (1990). Black grandmothers in multigeneration households: Diversity of family structure and family involvement in the Woodlawn community. Child Development, 61, 434-442.[Web of Science][Medline]
Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Sameroff, A. (1975). Early influences on development: Fact or fancy. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 21, 267-294.
Sameroff, A., & Chandler, M. (1975). Reproductive risk and the continuum of caretaking casualty. In F. Horowitz (Ed.), Review of child development research, Vol. 4. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Schellenbach, C. J., Whitman, T. L., & Borkowski, J. G. (1992). Toward an integrative model of adolescent parenting. Human Development, 35, 81-99.
Taylor, R. J., Chatters, L. M., & Jackson, J. S. (1993). A profile of familial relations among three-generation black families. Family Relations, 42, 332-341.
Tolson, T. F. J., & Wilson, M. N. (1990). The impact of two- and three-generation black family structure on perceived family climate. Child Development, 61, 416-428.
U.S. House of Representatives. (1996). Personal responsibility and work opportunity reconciliation act of 1996 (Report No. 104-725). Washington, DC.
Ventura, J. N., & Stevenson, M. B. (1986). Relations of mothers' and fathers' reports of infant temperament, psychological functioning, and family characteristics. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 32(3), 275-289.
Ventura, S. J., Matthews, T. J., & Curtin, S. C. (1999). Declines in teenage birth rates: National and state patterns. National Vital Statistics Reports, 47, 1-17.
Wakschlag, L. S., Chase-Lansdale, P. L., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (1991). Scale of Intergenerational Relationship Quality. Manuscript submitted for publication.
Wakschlag, L. S., Chase-Lansdale, P. L., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (1996). Not just "Ghosts in the Nursery": Contemporaneous intergenerational relationships and parenting in young African-American families. Child Development, 67, 2131-2147.[Web of Science][Medline]
Wasserman, G. A., Rauh, V. A., Brunelli, S. A., Garcia-Castro, M., & Necos, B. (1990). Psychosocial attributes and life experiences of disadvantaged minority mothers: Age and ethnic variations. Child Development, 61, 566-580.[Web of Science][Medline]
Weed, K., Keogh, D., & Borkowski, J. (2000). Predictors of resiliency in adolescent mothers. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 21, 207-231.
Whiffen, V. E., & Gotlib, I. H. (1989). Infants of postpartum depressed mothers: Temperament and cognitive status. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 98(3), 274-279.[Web of Science][Medline]
CiteULike 
Connotea 
Del.icio.us What's this?
This article has been cited by other articles:
|
|
 |
|
  L. O'Donnell, A. Stueve, and A. Myint-U Parenting and Violence Toward Self, Partners, and Others Among Inner-City Young Adults Am J Public Health, December 1, 2009; 99(12): 2255 - 2260. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 L. SmithBattle Family Legacies in Shaping Teen Mothers' Caregiving Practices Over 12 Years Qual Health Res, October 1, 2006; 16(8): 1129 - 1144. [Abstract] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 M. M. Black, M. E. Bentley, M. A. Papas, S. Oberlander, L. O. Teti, S. McNary, K. Le, and M. O'Connell Delaying Second Births Among Adolescent Mothers: A Randomized, Controlled Trial of a Home-Based Mentoring Program Pediatrics, October 1, 2006; 118(4): e1087 - e1099. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||