Journal of Pediatric Psychology, Vol. 28, No. 4, 2003, pp. 281-286
© 2003 Society of Pediatric Psychology
Brief Report: Does Posttraumatic Stress Apply to Siblings of Childhood Cancer Survivors?
1 The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, 2 University of Pennsylvania
All correspondence should be sent to Melissa Alderfer at Division of Oncology, Rm. 1489 Market, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, 34th & Civic Center Boulevard, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104. E-mail: alderfer{at}email.chop.edu.
 |
Abstract |
|---|
 Top Abstract IntroductionMethodResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
Objective To investigate whether adolescent siblings of childhood cancer survivors experience posttraumatic stress (PTS). Methods Participants included 78 adolescent siblings of adolescent cancer survivors who completed self-report measures of anxiety, PTS, and perceptions of the cancer experience. Results Nearly half (49%) of our sample reported mild PTS and 32% indicated moderate to severe levels. One fourth of siblings thought their brother/sister would die during treatment; over half found the cancer experience scary and difficult. These perceptions were related to PTS. Siblings reported more PTS symptoms than a reference group of nonaffected teens but had similar levels of general anxiety. Conclusions Levels of PTS are elevated for siblings of childhood cancer survivors. Thus, PTS may be a useful model for understanding siblings' long-term reactions to cancer. Future research and clinical efforts should consider the needs of siblings of childhood cancer survivors in a family context.
Key words: siblings; cancer survivors; adolescents; posttraumatic stress..
|
Introduction |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionMethodResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
Childhood cancer in a brother or sister is one of the most challenging diseases for siblings to face (Sharpe & Rossiter, 2002
). During cancer treatment, a healthy sibling
may witness the physical and emotional pain of an ill brother or sister, along
with the parents' distress. Those siblings who understand the life threat
inherent in cancer may be disturbed by the uncertainty of the future. They may
also need to endure sudden and extended separations from the ill child and
their parents and negotiate changes in family members' roles and
responsibilities (Shannon, Barbarin,
McManus, & Freeman, 1994b). Given the family disruption
concomitant with diagnosis and treatment for childhood cancer, it is important
to understand short- and long-term consequences of these diseases for
siblings.
Research into the short-term consequences of childhood cancer for healthy
siblings has shown that during the treatment period, some siblings feel guilt,
powerlessness, loneliness, anxiety, depression, anger, and jealousy
(Barbarin et al., 1995;
Martinson, Gilliss, Collaizzo, Freeman,
& Bossert, 1990). Some exhibit poor academic achievement,
difficulties in social relationships, mood disturbances, and conduct problems
(Barbarin et al.,
1995;Sahler et al.,
1994). Others show enhanced socialization, taking on a role of
helping the ill child and their parents
(Horwitz & Kazak, 1990).
Despite the variation in responses, the challenges faced by siblings during
cancer treatment may put them at risk for long-term psychological
difficulties.
Unfortunately, the long-term adjustment of siblings of children with cancer
has been rarely investigated. Our review of the literature found only one such
study. In that investigation, no differences were noted between 60 siblings
and a comparison group on internalizing and externalizing problems,
self-esteem, or depression (Van
Dongen-Melman, De Groot, Hahlen, & Verhulst, 1995). Though
most siblings adjust well posttreatment, general measures of adjustment may
not capture the distinctive, traumatic aspects of facing a life-threatening
illness in a sibling.
One model of adjustment that captures the traumatic nature of childhood
cancer is a posttraumatic stress (PTS) model. This model has been applied to
adolescent and young adult cancer survivors and their parents. Most adolescent
survivors display rates of PTS similar to those of nonaffected comparison
children, with 14.2% scoring in the moderate to severe range on the
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Reaction Index (PTSD-RI;
Kazak et al, 1997). However,
young adult survivors are at increased risk for posttraumatic stress disorder
(PTSD), with 20.5% qualifying for the diagnosis at some time since their
cancer treatment and many more showing subclinical levels of PTS
(Hobbie et al., 2000). Parents
of childhood cancer survivors also show elevated rates of PTSD and PTS. Rates
of PTSD among mothers of childhood cancer survivors have been found to range
across studies from 6.2% to 11% (Kazak et
al., 1997; Manne, DuHamel,
Gallelli, Sorgen, & Redd, 1998), with 40.2% scoring in the
moderate to severe range on the PTSD-RI
(Kazak et al., 1997). Fathers
are investigated less frequently, but about 31.2% reach the moderate to severe
range on the PTSD-RI (Kazak et al.,
1997). Although siblings of cancer survivors may also be exposed
to traumatic aspects of the cancer experience and develop PTS, their long-term
adjustment in this regard has not been previously investigated.
The purpose of this study was to explore PTS in siblings of childhood
cancer survivors. Data on sibling PTS and anxiety were collected and compared
to those of a reference group. Perceptions of life threat and cancer-related
hardship were measured as correlates of PTS. Last, differences in PTS were
examined according to gender and age at diagnosis, as these variables have
been found to moderate adjustment
(Houtzager, Grootenhuis, & Last,
1999).
|
Method |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionMethodResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
Sample Recruitment and Procedure
Sibling data were collected during a preintervention home visit as part of an institutional review board–approved randomized clinical trial of an intervention to reduce symptoms of PTS and improve family functioning for families of adolescent survivors of childhood cancer (Surviving Cancer Competently Intervention Program [SCCIP]; Kazak et al., 1999
). Names and
contact information of childhood cancer survivors between 11 and 18 years of
age and 1 to 10 years posttreatment were gathered from our oncology tumor
registry. The survivor and his or her parents and siblings were contacted by
mail inviting participation. Through follow-up phone calls, we ensured
eligibility, gathered names and ages of siblings, explained the study,
answered questions, secured enrollment, and scheduled data collection.
Siblings giving informed consent completed self-report questionnaires
including measures of anxiety, PTS, and perceptions of the cancer experience.
We compared our sample to a reference group of children with no familial
illness on measures of PTS and anxiety collected in a previous study
(Kazak et al., 1997).
Participants
A total of 151 families enrolled in the randomized clinical trial; 113
siblings between the ages of 10 and 20 were identified across 81 of these
families and were invited to participate; 99 siblings (88%) from 78 families
agreed. In families where multiple siblings participated, one data packet was
randomly chosen for analyses. Thus, the final number in the analyses was
78.
The average age of the siblings was 14.2 years (SD = 2.2). About half (55.6%) were older than their sibling who had survived cancer; three (3.1%) were twins of survivors. At diagnosis these siblings ranged in age from 4.9 months to 15.8 years (M = 7.9 yrs, SD = 3.8). Cancer diagnoses included solid tumors (32%), lymphomas (23%), ALL (28%), and other cancers (17%). At the time of data collection, the families were, on average, 5.3 years posttreatment (SD = 3.3). The majority of the sample (88.0%) was Caucasian, with 10.7% African American and 1.3% Hispanic. Roughly a third (30.6%) reported an annual income below $50,000, 44.4% between $50,000 and $100,000, and 23.6% above $100,000.
The preexisting reference sample included 134 children drawn from
hospital-based pediatric practices (Kazak
et al., 1997). These children had no family members with serious
chronic medical or psychiatric conditions. The mean age was 13.2 years
(SD = 2.2), and roughly half (54.2%) of the children were female. The
majority of the sample was Caucasian (61%), with 17% African American, 13%
Hispanic, and 7% Asian. Roughly a third (37%) reported annual incomes below
$50,000, 30% between $50,000 and $100,000, and 33% above $100,000. This group
was similar to the sibling group in terms of gender distribution, 
2(1) =
.03, p = .86, and annual income, 2(2) = 4.95,
p = .08, but was, on average, one year younger, t(206) =
3.27, p < .005, and included a greater number of ethnic
minorities, 2(4) = 17.17, p < .001.
Measures
Revised Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale (RCMAS). The
RCMAS is a 37-item self-report inventory of anxiety
(Reynolds & Richmond,
1985). Subscales include physiological anxiety, worry, and social
anxiety. Internal consistency, test-retest reliability, and construct and
discriminate validity are adequate. Among our sample of siblings, alpha was
.84.
Impact of Events Scale-Revised (IES-R). Siblings of cancer
survivors completed the 22-item IES-R
(Weiss & Marmar,1997). In
addition to intrusive thoughts and avoidance, this revised version assesses
hyperarousal. The IES has high internal consistency and good test-retest
reliability. In our sample, internal consistency for the IES-R was also high
(
= .91).
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Reaction Index (PTSD-RI). The
PTSD-RI (Pynoos, Frederick, Nader, &
Arroyo, 1987) is a 20-item self-report measure with items
paralleling the diagnostic criteria for PTSD. Each item is rated for frequency
of occurrence on a 5-point scale. Total scores are calculated and can be
categorized into severity of posttraumatic stress reaction based on the
following scores: 12 to 24 = mild reaction; 25 to 39 = moderate reaction;
above 40 = severe reaction. Internal consistency in our sibling sample was
alpha = .74.
Assessment of Life Threat and Treatment Intensity Questionnaire
(ALTTIQ). The ALTTIQ (Stuber et
al., 1997) has respondents rate agreement with two statements
assessing perceptions of life threat (i.e., I thought my brother/sister would
die when he/she had cancer; My brother/sister could still die from his/her
cancer) and two items assessing cancer-related hardship (i.e., My
brother's/sister's cancer was scary [hard] for me) on 5-point Likert scales.
Ratings of hardship items were highly correlated (r = .79, p
< .001) and so were averaged to form one score.
|
Results |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionMethodResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
Nearly half (n = 37; 49.3%) of the siblings had mild posttraumatic stress reactions and almost a third (n = 24; 32.0%) had moderate to severe reactions on the PTSD-RI. To interpret IES-R scores, we examined correspondence between the IES-R items and DSM-IV PTSD criteria. When an item corresponding to a criterion occurred at least "sometimes" in the past 7 days, we considered the criterion fulfilled. When more than one IES-R item loaded onto a single criterion, endorsement of any one of the items at least "sometimes" fulfilled the criterion. Some PTSD criteria were not represented on the IES-R; thus, the following rates may underestimate the true level of PTS in our sample. Per IES-R responses, 38.7% (n = 29) of the siblings reported one or more symptoms of reexperiencing, 21.3% (n = 16) indicated three or more symptoms of avoidance, and 22.7% (n = 17) endorsed two or more symptoms of arousal, fulfilling DSM-IV PTSD symptom cluster criteria. Despite these levels of PTS, the average anxiety score was in the normal range (M = 47.42, SD = 10.21).
To assess if these rates of PTS were elevated, we compared the siblings' data to those of a preexisting reference group. Although the groups differed on age and ethnic composition, correlational analyses revealed that these variables were not related significantly to PTS; thus, they were not controlled in the analyses. The siblings reported more intrusion (Ms [SDs] = 7.01 [7.48] vs. 4.60 [5.99]; t [197] = 2.50, p < .02) and avoidance symptoms on the IES-R (11.53 [9.96] vs. 6.80 [8.22]; t [131, df corrected for unequal variances] = 3.45, p < .001) and more PTS on the PTSD-RI (20.48 [9.21] vs. 15.40 [10.18]; t [196] = 3.53, p < .01). The groups did not differ on anxiety (47.42 [10.21] vs. 48.78 [11.56]; t [199] =–.83, p = .41). Over a fourth (n = 20, 27%) of siblings indicated on the ALTTIQ that they thought their brother/sister would die during cancer treatment. Over half (n = 42, 56.8%) reported that cancer treatment was scary and hard. These beliefs were correlated with PTS scores (rs ranged from .32 to .41, ps < .01). A few siblings (n = 12, 16%) believed their sibling could still die from cancer.
For the sibling sample, two 2 x 2 analyses of variance (ANOVAs) were calculated with gender and age at diagnosis (dichotomized at age 6) as independent variables and PTSD-RI and IES-R scores as dependent variables. Age 6 was chosen as the point of dichotomization because children beyond this age tend to have more advanced cognitive skills and thus a clearer understanding of cancer. Despite unequal cell sizes, assumptions of homogeneity of variance were met. Female siblings, F(1, 69), and those older than 6 at diagnosis, F(1, 69), p < .05, endorsed more PTS symptoms on the IES-R. There were no significant interactions or differences on the PTSD-RI (see Table I for means).
|
|
Discussion |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionMethodResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
Adolescent siblings of childhood cancer survivors were found to report symptoms of posttraumatic stress. Nearly a third of the sample indicated moderate to severe PTS on the PTSD-RI. Previous data show a strong association between scores in this range and clinical diagnosis of PTSD (Pynoos et al., 1993
). When we
compared our group to a reference group of nonaffected teens, striking
differences emerged in levels of PTS. These results offer evidence that PTS
may be a useful model for understanding the long-term adjustment of siblings
of cancer survivors. Although these results are preliminary, it is not surprising that siblings of childhood cancer survivors report symptoms of PTS. A PTS model has been used effectively as a framework for conceptualizing the ongoing cancer-related distress of childhood cancer survivors and their parents. Although siblings of childhood cancer survivors may not have the same level of exposure as parents, who are at the hospital and involved in decision making, or the survivors themselves, who endure invasive cancer treatments, siblings still experience traumatic aspects of the cancer. As described earlier, siblings are often exposed to the physical and emotional suffering of their brother or sister, some (nearly a third of our sample) think their brother or sister will die, and many (over half of our sample) feel fear. Indeed, our results showed that siblings with these perceptions were more likely to endorse symptoms of PTS.
Although we cannot directly compare the siblings in our sample to their
family members on rates of PTS, it is interesting to note that rates of PTS in
our sample (32% scoring in the moderate to severe range on the PTSD-RI) seem
to fall below previously reported rates for mothers (40%), near rates for
fathers (30%), and above rates for the survivors themselves (14%). We
speculate that our sample had this rate of PTS because, like parents, in
addition to witnessing the effects of cancer and its treatment and feeling
fear and helplessness, some siblings adopt a caregiving role with the survivor
(Horwitz & Kazak, 1990).
However, like many fathers, siblings are not as involved as most mothers in
hospital-based caregiving. Additionally, the rates of PTS in siblings may
exceed that of survivors because, unlike most survivors, most siblings are
distanced from their most common source of social support: their parent(s).
Shifts in family role responsibilities, possible long parental absences, and
the intense distress of parents may interfere with successful adaptation of
siblings to this severe stressor.
Despite these clinically significant levels of PTS, we found no elevations in general anxiety, and anxiety scores did not differ between siblings and our reference group of nonaffected teens. There were significant correlations between anxiety scores and some measures of PTS (PTSD-RI: r = .39, p < .001; IES arousal subscale: r = .28, p < .02), but these correlations were modest at best and, despite elevations of PTS, did not result in elevations of anxiety across our sample. These findings contribute to our argument that general measures of adjustment and models of general distress may not be sensitive enough to capture the specific psychological consequences of facing childhood cancer that are consistent with a trauma model.
Female siblings reported more PTS than male siblings. This finding may
reflect the increased family responsibilities many girls encounter following
diagnosis of cancer, including caring for the ill child
(Shannon, Barbarin, McManus, &
Freeman, 1994a). Such responsibilities may expose girls more
directly to the trauma of cancer. Gender differences in PTS may also be
explained by higher levels of empathy in girls
(Lennon & Eisenberg, 1987).
Siblings who are more emotionally attuned to their brother or sister may be
more vulnerable to the negative impact of cancer
(Houtzager et al., 1999).
Finally, girls are frequently found to exhibit more PTS than boys, even given
the same level of exposure (Foa &
Street, 2001).
Children who were older than 6 at diagnosis indicated more PTS symptoms
than those 6 and younger at diagnosis. The older children's better memory of
the event and greater understanding of the realities of cancer may contribute
to their higher levels of symptoms. Older children may also be more involved
in family discussions about cancer
(Shannon et al., 1994a), which
may increase their level of stress, by increasing their level of exposure.
There are limitations of this study. First, the siblings were drawn from an intervention study. Families with more symptoms may have been more likely to participate, contributing to a possible overestimation of PTS. Additionally, while the reference group provided some useful comparative data, there were demographic differences between the groups. Although the discrepant variables, age and ethnicity, were not related to PTS, other, unmeasured differences may exist between the groups that may relate to PTS. Finally, this study relied heavily upon self-report questionnaires. The use of structured clinical interviews, the gold standard for assessing PTS, is warranted in future investigations.
This preliminary evidence of PTS symptoms in siblings of childhood cancer survivors is novel and contributes to the scant empirical literature in this area. Additional research is needed to further delineate subgroups of siblings at greatest risk for long-term symptomatology. Given that PTS is also found in parents of survivors, it may be important to examine familial patterns of adjustment and to develop family-based interventions to ameliorate or prevent PTS symptoms.
|
Acknowledgments |
|---|
This study was supported by a grant from the National Cancer Institute (CA63930). The authors would like to thank the SCCIP research team for their extensive contributions to this study.
Received February 11, 2002; revision received April 17, 2002; revision received June 26, 2002; accepted July 1, 2002
|
References |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionMethodResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
Barbarin, O., Sargent, J., Sahler, O., Carpenter, P., Copeland, D., Dolgin, M., et al. (1995). Sibling adaptation to childhood cancer collaborative study: Parental views of pre- and postdiagnosis adjustment of siblings of children with cancer. Journal of Psychosocial Oncology, 13, 1–20.
Foa, E. B., & Street, G. P. (2001). Women and traumatic events. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 62, 29–34.
Hobbie, W., Stuber, M., Meeske, K., Wissler, K., Rourke, M.,
Ruccione, K., et al. (2000). Symptoms of posttraumatic stress in
young adult survivors of childhood cancer. Journal of Clinical
Oncology, 18,
4060–4066.
Horwitz, W. A., & Kazak, A. E. (1990). Family adaptation to childhood cancer: Sibling and family system variables. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 19, 221–228.[CrossRef][Web of Science]
Houtzager, B. A., Grootenhius, M. A., & Last, B. F. (1999). Adjustment of siblings to childhood cancer: A literature review. Supportive Care in Cancer, 7, 302–320.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
Kazak, A. E., Barakat, L. P., Meeske, K., Christakis, D., Meadows, A. T., Casey, R., et al. (1997). Posttraumatic stress, family functioning, and social support in survivors of childhood leukemia and their mothers and fathers. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65, 120–129.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
Kazak, A. E., Simms, S., Bakarat, L., Hobbie, W., Foley, B., Golomb, V., et al. (1999). Surviving Cancer Competently Intervention Program (SCCIP): A cognitive-behavioral and family therapy intervention for adolescent survivors of childhood cancer and their families. Family Process, 38, 175–191.[Web of Science][Medline]
Lennon, R., & Eisenberg, N. (1987). Emotional displays associated with preschoolers' prosocial behavior. Child Development, 58, 992–1000.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
Manne, S. L., DuHamel, K., Gallelli, K., Sorgen, K., & Redd, W.
H. (1998). Posttraumatic stress disorder among mothers of
pediatric cancer survivors: Diagnosis, comorbidity, and utility of the PTSD
Checklists as a screening instrument. Journal of Pediatric
Psychology, 23,
357–366.
Martinson, I. M., Gilliss, C., Collaizzo, D. C., Freeman, M., & Bossert, E. (1990). Impact of childhood cancer on healthy school-age siblings. Cancer Nursing, 13, 183–190.[Web of Science][Medline]
Pynoos, R., Frederick, S., Nader, K., & Arroyo, W.
(1987). Life threat and posttraumatic stress in school age
children. Archives of General Psychiatry,
44,
1057–1063.
Pynoos, R., Goenjian, A., Tashjian, M., Karakashian, M., Manjikian,
R., Manoukian, G., et al. (1993). Posttraumatic stress reactions
in children after the 1988 Armenian earthquake. British Journal of
Psychiatry, 163,
239–247.
Reynolds, C., & Richmond, B. (1985). Manual for the Revised Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale. Los Angeles, CA: Western Psychological Services.
Sahler, O., Roghmann, K., Carpenter, P., Mulhern, R., Dolgin, M., Sargent, J., et al. (1994). Sibling adaptation to childhood cancer collaborative study: Prevalence of sibling distress and definition of adaptation levels. Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 15, 353–366.
Shannon, P. J., Barbarin, O. A., McManus, M. M., & Freeman, K. S. (1994a). Childhood cancer through the eyes of siblings. Ann Arbor, MI: Family Development Project Report.
Shannon, P. J., Barbarin, O. A., McManus, M. M., & Freeman, K. S. (1994b). Family stress and coping with childhood cancer: II. Psychosocial impact through the eyes of siblings. Unpublished manu script, Family Development Project, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
Sharpe, D., & Rossiter, L. (2002). Siblings of
children with chronic illness: A meta-analysis. Journal of
Pediatric Psychology, 27,
699–710.
Stuber, M., Kazak, A., Meeske, K., Barakat, L., Guthrie, D.,
Garnier, H., et al. (1997). Predictors of posttraumatic stress
symptoms in childhood cancer survivors. Pediatrics,
100,
958–964.
Van Dongen-Melman, J. E. W. M., De Groot, A., Hahlen, K., & Verhulst, F. C. (1995). Siblings of childhood cancer survivors: How does this "forgotten" group of children adjust after cessation of successful cancer treatment? European Journal of Cancer, 31A, 2277–2283.[CrossRef]
Weiss, D. S., & Marmar, C. R. (1997). The Impact of Event Scale-Revised. In J. P. Wilson & T. M. Keane (Eds.). Assessing psychological trauma and PTSD (pp. 399–411). New York: Guilford.
CiteULike 
Connotea 
Del.icio.us What's this?
This article has been cited by other articles:
|
|
 |
|
  A. E. Kazak, M. T. Rourke, M. A. Alderfer, A. Pai, A. F. Reilly, and A. T. Meadows Evidence-based Assessment, Intervention and Psychosocial Care in Pediatric Oncology: A Blueprint for Comprehensive Services Across Treatment J. Pediatr. Psychol., October 1, 2007; 32(9): 1099 - 1110. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
C. D. Houck, J. R. Rodrigue, and D. Lobato Parent-Adolescent Communication and Psychological Symptoms among Adolescents with Chronically Ill Parents J. Pediatr. Psychol., June 1, 2007; 32(5): 596 - 604. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 C. C. Peterson and D. Drotar Family Impact of Neurodevelopmental Late Effects in Survivors of Pediatric Cancer: Review of Research, Clinical Evidence, and Future Directions Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry, July 1, 2006; 11(3): 349 - 366. [Abstract] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
S. S. Hawkins and J. Radcliffe Current Measures of PTSD for Children and Adolescents J. Pediatr. Psychol., May 1, 2006; 31(4): 420 - 430. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
A. E. Kazak, N. Kassam-Adams, S. Schneider, N. Zelikovsky, M. A. Alderfer, and M. Rourke An Integrative Model of Pediatric Medical Traumatic Stress J. Pediatr. Psychol., May 1, 2006; 31(4): 343 - 355. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
L. P. Barakat, M. A. Alderfer, and A. E. Kazak Posttraumatic Growth in Adolescent Survivors of Cancer and Their Mothers and Fathers J. Pediatr. Psychol., May 1, 2006; 31(4): 413 - 419. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
A. E. Kazak Evidence-Based Interventions for Survivors of Childhood Cancer and Their Families J. Pediatr. Psychol., January 1, 2005; 30(1): 29 - 39. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
B. A. Houtzager, F. J. Oort, J. E. H. M. Hoekstra-Weebers, H. N. Caron, M. A. Grootenhuis, and B. F. Last Coping and Family Functioning Predict Longitudinal Psychological Adaptation of Siblings of Childhood Cancer Patients J. Pediatr. Psychol., December 1, 2004; 29(8): 591 - 605. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
L. E. Labay and G. A. Walco Brief Report: Empathy and Psychological Adjustment in Siblings of Children with Cancer J. Pediatr. Psychol., June 1, 2004; 29(4): 309 - 314. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 A. E. Kazak Research Priorities for Family Assessment and Intervention in Pediatric Oncology Journal of Pediatric Oncology Nursing, May 1, 2004; 21(3): 141 - 144. [Abstract] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
A. E. Kazak, M. Alderfer, M. T. Rourke, S. Simms, R. Streisand, and J. R. Grossman Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms (PTSS) in Families of Adolescent Childhood Cancer Survivors J. Pediatr. Psychol., April 1, 2004; 29(3): 211 - 219. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||